2.
   2024
/  
 
(  )
: 3     :100
:    -    ,        
             
-
1.         
2.     ,      
-
3.      ,       20
4.        ?    

-
5.         
2.
6.     -   ?        
   
-
7.       ?        
8.      ?   '  20    

2.
   2024
/  
 
(  )
: 3     :100
:    -    ,        
             
-
1.         
:           |
-
                 
        ,    ,   
      ,         ,   
                
        ,    -     
 
  - , , ,   
   - 
   ,   , -
 ,  ,        
 
           ,
  -   
 ,     
     
   
    :
2.
      
   
      
      
  -     ,     ,  
  '     
        |
1. -  (1950–1967)
  ,   -      ,   '  
  
      
       
       
    ,        ,  -  
,  -   
2.  -  (1967–1989)
1967  :
   
       
  '      
 :
 , , ()    
  
  
      -    
3.   (1989–2014)
2.
        
     
 
   
     
  :
 
   (...)
   (...)
             
4. -      (2014  )
2014 ,          
 
  
   
,     -    , 
    
       
      /    |
1. - 
     ,    :
 
 
   
 
 :
 
 
 
2.
2.      
      
     '   
:
: , 
: , , , , 
        ,   

3.  
          :
 



- 
               
    
4.  
      
:
 
     
:
 
  
-   ()
2.
5. - 
       :
        
       
         
6. , ,  - 
       '    
    '         
,        
7.    
 :
  
    
  
      
8.     
  :
   
-

  ,      ,     
 
:         |
2.
:   

1.      
 
2.      
3.     
4.   

1.   ( )
2.      
3.   
4.     

          - ,    -
             -     
,             ,  
           ,  , 
              
  ,      ,    
          
   
2.
      ,         
   
 
2.     ,      
:        
1.   :    ?
     ,            
            ,    
  
        
 -   , 
         
  ,   -   (  ,   
  )
  ,   -   ( ,     
 )
  -  ,      , 

 ,     
    
  -      
2.    :   
      - , , ,      ',
    
       -,  
  
-:    ,    (INC)   
 (BJP)         DMK    
TMC    
:     
         
:       ,    ' 
 
             
 
3.     
2.
     ,            

()    (1950–1960  )
  ,     
      ,      '  
  -      ,     

()    (1970–1980  )
-,     
 (1975-77)       ,     
    
        
(c)   (1990–2000  )
      ,       
     
 ,      
 ,  (  ),   ( 
)   
()   - (2014  )
      , 2014  2019    

 ,        ,   

     -  
 ,       -  -  
         
4.       
       :
- :      ,    ' 
   
 : ,  ,         '
 
 :   ,    ,      
  
 
2.
 :  - (, -)    
()    - ()  
- :        
- ,  , ,         
  
,   :          
5.     
   ,    :
  :     -  
 

 :           
:           
:        ,   

 
6.     
   :
:        
 :      ,   
 :  '      
:              (,
) '    
    :    ,    
    
7.     
, 
         ?
 -   
 , -       
    ,     
 
    ,         

          -    
      
 ,     ,    ,  ,  
     
2.
8. :      
1950–1960   -   ()
1970–1980         
1990–2000     (, )
2014      +   
  
     
 -           
             ,    
     
        :
-  
  
    
-
3.      ,      
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    ,      |
             
   
  -    -   '        
              ,  
   ,           
󹼥-
       ,          
      ,         
               
    
   ,   ,   -
           ,

:
   ,
2.
   , 
       
󹼥    
          324       
       ,      
 
   
  :
      ,
        , 
       
󹼥    
󷄧󷄫  
  ,   -   , 1989 ,   -  
  ,     :
    (CEC)
   (ECs)
  ,      
 
󷄧󷄬  
              
       ,   '     '
󷄧󷄭    
     65      ,    ,  
 
         
2.
        
    , , 
  
     
      
󷄧󷄮  
            
       
   ,      
󹼥         |
           -  
   :
󺮥1.  
     
   
   
         
          
󺮥2.    
     
 :
 ( )
  (  )
    
  -  
   :
 -,
2.
    ,
   
󺮥3. - 
          :
     
    
    
       
󺮥4.    (MCC)    
   -         
     
    :
  ,
   ,
          
          
 
󺮥5.  
             
   
            
󺮥6.  
    :
,
 ,
2.
 ,
    :

 ,
    ,
    
󹼥    
󹼤1.   
      
:
,
 ,
   
     
󹼤2.    
  "  "    
:
      
 ,
     ,
       
   ,        
 
󹼤3.    
           
 ,        
      
 
󹼤4.    
2.
 ,          :
 ,
 ,
 
            
󹼥   
     
 
     
 -   
       
     ,     
󹼥
               
       
     
       -         
          
 
,      ,         
           ,   
  
  ,          
       
4.        ?    

:            |
1.   :  
  
2.
                 
   '         ,  ,    
 -  ,  ,     
        '  ,    
  
     ,         
   ,    '       
         
2.    
()   
           
   , ,     '  
  
       ,      
   
          ,   
 
               
()   
  ,  , -      
          
          
         
  ,       
()  
        ,      
 (      )   

 
 , ,   
  
      -    
       
2.
(d) ---  (FPTP)
 FPTP     ,         ,  
    
:    35%,  33%,   32%   , 
     -  65%    

              

     ,      
 ,      
(e) ,       
       ,       
          
     -      
         
(f)      
        
       
         '   
         
             
(g)   
         ,      
       
   '          
    
 
          


(h)      
  ,          
2.
      
 
        
         
    
3.     
()   
  '  
    
   '       
    
       
()   
        '   
       - 
   
-   
       
()    
       
      
      ( ,   '
)
       
()   '   
FPTP   '  ,       , 
      
 
          
(e) -   
,    '   
        
        
2.
        
(f)   
       
    
  '   
       
(g)    
     
   ( 
 ,     )
,  '          
     
(h)      
        
   
    
       
4. :   
2.
5.   
            ,    

, ,   ,       
 ,    

, ,  ,        , 
   ,   -   
-
5.         
:-
         ,        
 ,         
    
              ,    
     ,      
   ,      ,       
              
   
 ,  
         
 ,  ,   
1.     (  )
  ?
                 ',
        :




           (SCs)   
 (STs)      ,  ,      

2.
  ?
     ,  ,          
      ,    '  
  :

 
 
      ,           

2.        
()     
                
      ,          

        '    

      
 
         
        
 
() -  
             
  '            

   :
     
 (  )      
    '         
  
2.
()   
      
 :
         
       '     
    -      
        
3.        
()    
              
    :

 
 
   ,          
       
 
           ,    
      
()     
             
       
     
    
,      
..            
 
2.
()    
         :
   
     
        
 ,       
4.    
(a)   
      '     :
   
   
-    
 
            
()  
 :
 -    
       
       
   '  ,     
  
5. -      
  ,        :
1.   '        
2.    ,         
  
2.
3.  -   ,      
4.   -     
     
6. -      
,    :
1.   -       ' 
2.  -         
3.    -         
 
4.  - -       

 ,           -  
 
7.       
  :
     
 
     
  -        
 ,          ,     -
  
8.  :      
2.
  
            

              
,  ,      ,     '
  ,              
             
               
,    ,    ,     '   
 
6.     -   ?        
   
:  :   
1.   :   ?
2.
            
  - -
, ,            
   ,       
            '   
        ,           
 ,             
2.     - 
     
     ' -     
:
()   
              
: -          
    
        -  ,  
  
()  
       -          
: 1980       ,    

   
     
() - 
           
:     (    , 
    )
      ,    
()  
     
: 1950       '        ,
        
2.
 , -      (    
  )
(e)  
        '    
:           
  '          
    
(f)  
            ,
    '   
:      -    
  
   '            
        
(g)   
  
     
:   ,    ,   

       ,     

 
3.  
 
    
       :
    
  
     
           
  
 ,   ()   (, )  
4.         
2.
  
   -          
         :
()   
       
,           
   '    ,      
()   
     
         
  (     )    
()    
   -   
            
       '    
(d) -     
            
 
     
   
 
(e)    
     '  
,    '  
     
             
 
(f)  
    - ,    
 
 
        
    
 
(g)   
      

2.
       
 
      
 
5. :     
6.   
      ,     -    
 ,
    ,    
  ,     - ,
          
    
         
  ,    ,    ,   
,        
      
 
 
               
 ,               
-    :    ,      
2.
-
7.       ?        
:          
-
      
  , , ,  
       
    
       ,      
 
      ,          
     ,    -         
       ,  ,        
     , 
        ,   
       ()     ,  
  -     
   
            
   ,      
 
  :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔             
 
   :
   
   
   
      
, ,          '  
 ( )
                  
      
 ,     :
    
2.
   
    
     
    
      (  )
        :
 -
-
  
    
   
              
     
""                 
         
 ;     
    
     '    :
1.  
           
 
 :
     
  , , , , ,   
  
           
  ' :
    '  
2.
    
      
  "   "       
2.  
             
 :
  200      
  ,          
 
   :
         
 -        
:
       
     
3.  
             
 ,     :
 
 
 
 
:
     '     
        
2.
      
 ,        
4.  
           
  :
       
       
:
        '  
         '   
 ,           
5.  
        
 
   :
  
 
 
 
:
  '      
    
  '   
            
6.    
          
2.
 :
 

 
 :
    
   
   
             
7.  
          
   :
     (NAM) 
      
   :
     
 
         
 
8.    
       ,  -  
 :




2.
 :
  
    
   
 ” (   )    
9.    
   ,     
:
    '   
     
      
 ,         
 
 :      

       
       
   , -      
     
2.
 ,  ,  ,  ,  , 
              ,
             
         ,  ,  
          ,    
       ,       
  
 
8.      ?   '  20    

:    '  
1.      ?
               
       
:  , , ,    
 
     
    , , ,        
  
  :    ,   -  
   
 ,  1990         ,      
,   ,      
2.    
     1991          
    ,   ,    ( 
   ) 
  ,        ,   

   ,     
,        
,    
    
2.
3.   '   
            :
()     
      '      
,        -  ,   

  ,  ,    -  
  
         ,
   ,           

 ,         
()    
       
      (  , , ) 
   
    ,      
            
 
 ,     '    
()  
 -       
1990  2000        
   -        (FDI) -    
     
         
 ,         
()    
      (WTO), IMF       

2.
  ,         
 
              
  
  WTO          
      '  
(e)     
   
 -   
 ,         
            
         
  
 ,   -    
(f)     
  -  ,        
 ,            
 
       -  , -
    
 ,        
(g)    
   ,        
           , 
     
           
 , #MeToo         
  
(h)     
          
,         
2.
  ,          ' 
 
        
4.  '    
         
          
  
    
    '  ,       
5.  '    
   ,   -  
 
  '    ,        
 ,          
 
    '      
6.   
     -            ,
 ,           , 
         
         
    
     , WTO       ,  
     -    
 
        ,     
            
  ,        :   
     
 -            

"              
 
       ,       
 "